Struggle in the dark : how Russian and other iron curtainspies operate.

ESPIONAGE is as old as organized warfare and far older than civilized society. Every reader of the Bible will remember the activities of spies during the invasion of Palestine, and many will have reflected that even when weapons and tactics were primitive a commander's success often depended on his know ledge of the enemy's dispositions and strategic resources.

As centuries passed, spying activities increased and methods. and tactics improved. Because it came to be recognized that organized espionage networks were far more effective than the independent efforts of individual spies, the first professional Secret Service organizations were established.

A classic example of how professional espionage worked in the sixteenth century is the following case taken from the archives of the Venetian Secret Service, considered to have been at that time the best espionage organization in the world.

In 1597 plenipotentiaries representing France and Spain met at Vervins, north-east of Paris, and finally concluded a secret agree ment. The text of this treaty was written in code on parchment, which was folded, rolled up, and sealed with the signets of the Spanish negotiators. The document was then wrapped in another roll of parchment, which was again sealed. The roll was placed in a metal tube, which was soldered, and the tube was placed in a large metal container which was finally welded to a chain wrapped around the body of a reliable courier.